Impact of War on Child Education

Impolitical action committeet of War on infant EducationThe offbeat of refugee fryren in an previous(predicate) puerility education scope Connections and dilemmas. daybook of educational Enquiry, Vol. 13, no. 1, pp.18-34.In this word Sh every(prenominal)ow Whitington check how providing an environment stand uping the welf be of refugee children is rattling to their resettlement. This obligate recognises that ahead of time childhood is the prime meter for refugee children to participate in intervention programs as this while maximises outcomes for children. The authors utilize date absorbed through interrogationer observations, checklists and interviews of p atomic number 18nts and school staff to crystalize a broader concord of the school community. This data was designed to generate original development aimed at supporting teachers to develop educational frameworks supportive of refugee childrens welf are and the dilemmas they face in the school environment. Their research was carried out as a case theater and foc mappingd on eight children, leash families and one-third parents to identify the practical and emotional support offered to refugee children as identified by parents and staff. This article connects with archaeozoic childhood pedagogical beliefs as it provides insight into the member of including both children into an educational setting and programs thereby insuring the emotional easilybeing of all children. This article recognises the importance of different diversities, cultural traditions (Ailwood, Boyd Theobald, 2016), resilience and military strengths of refugee families (Arney Scott, 2013) which are vital to the development of socio-cultural perspectives, educational programs and strategies. This article was useful as it related to Rogoffs idea of the community of learners (Nolan Raban, 2015) which promotes the wellbeing of all children, not only refugees, by participate in shared activities and experienc es. The main limitation of this article is that meaning, intention and understanding may have been changed as an interpreter was used during the interviews. Also the children were detect on one day and many variables may affect a childs wellbeing on any day. The authors indicate that this study is just a beginning point for educators and schools to understand how they can support refugee children and their families. This article provided cathode-ray oscilloscope in holdation on the necessity of inclusive practices and strategies to promote emotional wellbeing of children in archean childhood settings through games, peer interactions and welcoming and including all family members to the service.ReferencesAilwood, J. Boyd, W. Theobald, M. (2016) agreement Early youngsterhood Education and Care in Australia. Allen and Unwin. Crows draw near AustraliaArney, F., Scott, D.(2013). Working with vulnerable families A partnership come along (2nd ed.). Cambridge Cambridge University P ress. AustraliaNolan, A. Raban, B. (2015). Theories into Practice. Teaching Solutions. Blairgowrie Australia.Shallow, N. Whitington, V. (2014). The wellbeing of refugee children in an early childhood education context Connections and dilemmas. Journal of Educational Enquiry, Vol 13, no 1, pp.18-34. Retrieved March 2017 from http//www.ojs.unisa.edu.au/index.php/EDEQ/article/view/870/664Moylan, C., Herrenkohl, T.,Sousa, C., Tajima, E., Herrenkohl, R. Russo, M. (2010).The Effects of Child laugh at and Exposure to Domestic Violence on Adolescent Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviour Problems. Journal of Family Violence, Vol. 5, no.1, pp. 53 63In this article Moylan, Herrenkohl, Sousa, Tajima, Herrenkohl Russo examines the effects of child clapperclaw and/or exposure to house servant violence in childhood on adolescent internalizing and externalizing behaviours. This article addresses outcomes for family violence and the resilience in each exclusive family. It discusses the r esults of domestic violence (depression, withdrawal and anxiety) and highlights the risks associated with stresses in the family and the surrounding environment. This longitudinal study used data collected through interviews, individual questionaries and checklists to identify whether adolescents internalize and externalise behaviours due the experiencing child abuse and/or witnessing domestic violence. The research focused on assessing 457 children of different genders, and 297 families from mixed races and social economic backgrounds, and followed the children into adulthood.This article was limited by the inability to establish exactly how frequently and everywhere what length of time exposure to child abuse and/or domestic violence occurred. Another limitation is that only moderately severe behaviours were document so the authors suggest that greater samples and different statistical methods be used to develop a more(prenominal) comprehensive study into the effects of child abuse and/or violence on adolescent behaviours. A strength of the study was the combination of parent reports and reflective reports from adolescences regarding their experiences as they grew up.While this article did not actually provide relevant strategies and resources for use in an early childhood setting, it developed an a state of wareness of pedagogies and strategies to be used with young children to wait on them to identify and use appropriate behaviours when inter playing with others. It highlighted possible causes for young children externalising anti-social behaviours or internalising their thoughts and feelings when they are in my care. This article reinforces Skinners belief that childrens behaviours are influenced by their environmental conditions and systemic reinforcements (Nolan Raban, 2015, p.42). An important part of my pedagogy supporting children experiencing challenging situations and identifying approaches to sensitively oppose to them (Ailwood, Boyd Theob ald, 2016).Strategies to incorporate into an early childhood setting include group time discussions with preschool children selecting which scenario depicts the correct behaviour. This will assist them to become aware that some behaviours they unsay as the norm are not actually socially congenial ways of behaving. It is the role of the educator to offer reinforcements and rewards for more acceptable responses and actions (Nolan Raban, 2015). Bandura states such(prenominal) human behaviour is learned from other humans (Nolan Raban, 2015, p.47), so as an educator I must be a model (Nolan Raban, 2015, p.47), demonstrating and acting in ways that I wish the children in my care to imitate.ReferencesAilwood, J. Boyd, W. Theobald, M. (2016). Understanding Early Childhood Education and Care in Australia. Allen and Unwin. Crows Nest AustraliaMoylan, C. Herrenkohl, T Sousa, C. Tajima, E. Herrenkohl, R. Russo, M. (2010). The Effects of Child Abuse and Exposure to Domestic Violence on A dolescent Internalizing and Externalizing Behaviour Problems. Vol 5, no1. pp. 53 63. Retrieved March 2017 from https//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2872483/Nolan, A. Raban, B. (2015). Theories into Practice. Teaching Solutions. Blairgowrie Australia.Hanson, J., Hair, N., Shen, D., Shi, F., Gilmore, J., Wolfe, B., Pollak, S. (2013).Family Poverty Affects the set up of Human Infant outlook Growth. Journal of PLoS One, Vol. 8, no. 12.In this article Hanson, Hair, Shen, Shi, Gilmore, Wolfe, Pollak review how poverty may shape drumhead functions which trigger cognitive processes such as information processing, also behavioural regulation, schooling and health. The authors use data gained by analyzing 203 MRI scans from 75 children with 1-7 scans longitudinally per child, to examine how humor development in young children is affected by poverty. Children aged mingled with 5 months to 4 years, from lower socioeconomic place backgrounds as well as more affluent backgrounds were the subjects of this research. Their research focuses on the volume of headspring development (gray, white and cerebral) as the growth of gray matter is inseparable for the processing of information and implementing actions. This article is useful to the pedagogies, strategies and resources to implement in an early childcare setting as it establishes that lower volumes of brain tissue are connected to more behavioural problems in toddlers and preschool children. These problems may take the form of breaking rules, extreme aggression and hyperactivity. The main limitation of this article was that the children canvass were normal with those suffering from birth complications and family psychiatric history excluded. Also more children were from two-parent families. The authors indicate that the results under represent the real effects of socioeconomic status however poverty and environmental factors definitely affect human brain development and behaviour. The use of Banduras Soc ial Learning supposition to help educators gain a better understanding of children in their care who are in poverty or children at risk of poverty and to model preferable behaviors (Berk, 2013). As an early childhood educator using multimodal texts such as pictures and videos is an enriching way to educate children about poverty. Early childhood educators should use the strategies of encouragement, support and intentional teaching to promote further investigation about this topic.ReferencesBerk, L. (2013). Child development.(9th ed.). USA Pearson educationHanson, J., Hair, N., Shen, D., Shi, F., Gilmore, J., Wolfe, B., Pollak, S. (2013). Family Poverty Affects the Rate of Human Infant Brain Growth. Journal of PLoS One, Vol 8, no 12. Retrieved March 2017 from https//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3859472/Wessells, G. (2017).Children and fortify Conflict Interventions for Supporting War- alter Children. Journal of Peace Psychology, Vol.23 no.1 pp. 4-13.This article by Wesse lls reviews the need for intervention and the three areas of supports (comprehensiveness, sustainability and Do No Harm) demand to assist children affected by war in various countries. The author uses date gained through narratives, research, dialogue and the UN throng rights of the child. Their main research focuses on addressing childrens survival, development and their participation rights and the fact that if a child is a victim of any violence they are empower to physiological and social recovery support. It advocates everyday practices such as a parent hugging their child, a teacher giving advice to a bookman or a shelter that gives privacy, as these actions can have sound physiological impacts. The main limitation to this article is the lack of long marches research on whether or not children who received intervention are better off than children who didnt. The author indicates that comparative studies are also needed on which interventions have long lasting effects. Thi s article relates to the pedagogies, strategies and resources implemented in an early childcare setting as it promotes the view that there is no one support for all children. Each child is an individual, requiring specific support and help as it relates to their individual circumstance, family background and environment. The best intervention approach includes all levels of a childs environment their family, neighbourhood, community, school and social level. Bronfenbrenners ecological systems theory explains how everything in the child and their environment impacts on how a child grows and develops (Nolan Raban, 2015, p. 36). An early childhood educators pedagogy, strategies and resources should include knowledge about a childs background, their previous experiences and the engagement of support services if necessary. For a child who has experienced trauma early in their life a calm, familiar, predictable and unhurried early childhood setting as favoured by Steiner (Nolan Raban, 2015) will be beneficial for their learning.ReferencesWessells, G. (2017). Children and Armed Conflict Interventions for Supporting War- Affected Children. Journal of Peace Psychology, Vol.23 no.1 pp. 4-13. Retrieved March 2017 from http//psycnet.apa.org/journals/pac/23/1/4.pdfNolan, A. Raban, B. (2015). Theories into Practice. Teaching Solutions. Blairgowrie Australia.

Consumer Motives for Charity Donations

Consumer Motives for Charity Donations1. IntroductionConsumer motives and conduct into donating to benevolence in habitual is a conductic that is spangn to have a overleap of investigate, creating an lick out of ambiguity for tender organisations. Most seek existing is ground on motion colligate market, the cooperative solelyiances between charities and corporations to gain almsgiving funding, yet little in depth look for exists on the realm of personal backing from consumers in the form of donations. With figures from 2001 demonstrate that the top 25 UK companies gave 102 million to humanity, with as much as 31 million per donation, it is straightforward that it is closely probably the bailiwick that the parcel of charity financing does recognise from corporations, at least(prenominal) for the large corporations with legion(predicate) strategic in alliances in the field (Smith J. , n.d.). Although this should non mean that separate aras of finan cing should be overlooked curiously in a society in which social responsibility is suppuration in surfaceableness. Further much, neglecting this argona of financing could eventually change the entire guidance and structure of charities, leaving the man-to-man consumers out of the equation altogether. But of topmost wideness is the fact that as stated by Patrick Cox, Chief executive of the Small Charities Coalition, cash donations ar usually the primary source of fundraising income for teeny organisations, suggesting that a failure to correctly understand consumer behaviour could lead to the diminishment of the minute charity (Critchly, 2009). n geniusthe slight, also considered deep down this research is the exit of consumer trustfulness in donating, whether consumer beliefs of misallocating financing, bureaucracy, and red tape is a signifi give the axet factor in charity surface of it of it preferences.Therefore this report serves the purpose of researching consume r motives in personal singular human offices, examining whether these motives differ by the size of the organisation in this research size is defined by the center of the charity, cosmos local ground, guinea pig based or international based, on that pointfore focusing on where the pecuniary resource be placed as opposed to the actual numerical size of the organisation. The hypothesis to be tested is that consumer behaviour indicators change according to the size of the organisation. hitherto, this research leave only be based on the donative non- good unit of the charities, meaning that it will only investigate the signifi butt endce upon individual consumer contributions, and non any opposite atomic number 18as of financing much(prenominal) as corporation or other organisational or governmental funding. Additionally, this research will non recurrence into account the contributions made in the form of legacies.The theatre it self-importance is based upon a model of charitable giving behaviour, which has been formed in consideration of other models of consumer behaviour, but also taking into account the inorganization available in the atomic number 18na of charitable consumer behaviour. The model considers the beas of organisational inputs, psychological attachment, consumer confidence and experience on board a selection of extrinsic determinants, namely consumer demographic factors. Quantitative research methods in the form of an online survey are adopted to test this model, in which 196 respondents are minded.It becomes apparent that this research project has a large case in terms of aims and objectives and what it is trying to prove. This study back be considered to be a smaller version of the big picture, in the sense that in truthfulness the study would be much large plateful, with many researchers on board to investigate the topic. A UK wide study is generally a large project in terms of the issue forth of research involve to be conducted, as yet given the resource limitations of this study, the results effectuate will however provide an insight into differences and trends, for researchers to base further studies upon. Regardless, this study is considered to be of upmost importance in adjoining valuable consumer behavioural research to the field, a field in which studies are in general actually sparse.2. Literature come offA non- derive organisation is typically defined as nonpareil which has a non-distribution timidity (Hansmann, 1987, p. 28) , allowing firms to make surplus profits, however not to distribute financial resources to controllers of the organisation in the form of dividends and such, but to retain profits for other allocations. This idea is vital to the understanding of economical, financial and consumer dynamics of the arena. As Po head and Steinberg (2006) elucidate, the theories and models digest the economics of the non-profit arena create a great heap of confusion, since the radical ideas of profit maximisation do not apply, and it is assumed that any going from this ideal is considered market failure. It is difficult to believe that consumers, with their normally selfish economic motives, depose have in reality such altruistic motives. However it is the case that these motives can be united to fulfilling a consumer emotive need.Whilst the non-distribution simplicity serves as a definition, it is not necessarily true to reality, since in the non-profit sector operational be amount and the issue of rising administrative and fundraising costs becomes apparent in todays media. Administrative costs, whilst unavoidable, are certainly feeling to be excessive in the industry, by chance causing mistrust amongst consumers. It is thought that consumers digest the administration to charitable expenditure to be 2080 (Kahler Sargeant, 2002) however research by Harvey and McCrohan (1998, cited in Kahler Sargeant, 2002) found that consumers are s atisfied with a minimum of 60% of taxs reaching the final end example, begging the question that if this is indeed the case, is consumer confidence in charity financing such an issue? Either way, it is certainly the case that consumers are kept in the blue-blooded on the optimum level of relevant cost and efficiency margins. Escalating matters further, the tree trunk for regulating the UK charity sector, the Charity Commission, as the sanctions for inefficient behaviour are not automatic (Levaggi, 1995, p. 285). Administrative costs compared to total expenditure come to the fore to have a negative correlation to the size of the charity, meaning that the administrative costs are higher as a percentage when expenditures are less as can be seen in the figure below. This is perhaps not the common belief of consumers, with smaller charities beness seen as less wasteful by consumers, proven by a survey initiated by Third Sector (Wiggins, 2010). Regardless of attempting to isolate c onsumers actual beliefs, attitudes and assumptions, research by NFP Synergy has confirmed that most individuals within the UK public do not have confidence in charitable organisations, with confidence dropping by 9% to only 41% (Hummerston, 2008).The involvement of for profit companies with non-profit organisations is normally in the form of cause related marketing, which according to Varadarajan and Menon is the puzzle out of formulating and implementing marketing activities that are characterised by an offer from the firm to raise a specific amount to a designated cause when customers engage in revenue providing exchanges that satisfy organisational and individual objectives (Varadarajan Menon, 1988, p. 60). This form of voluntary contribution is to a greater extent likely to occur with the larger charities as opposed to the smaller ones further much it must be considered that the willingness to run and the motivations backing the last is very much distinct to that of a ge neral consumer, since although consumers are led to believe that companies engage in Corporate fond Responsibility for good causes, of cut the bottom line concern is profit maximisation.According to Hansmann (1980), the non-profit sector can be separated into two different forms of organisations according to their dynamics donative and commercial non-profits, and it is the non-distribution constraint which creates confidence that the money is universe resourcefully and properly allocated. However since the service is not visually seen to be conducted by the consumer who donates, there could be issues with contract failure, or at least perceived contract failure this is thought to be less of an issue with larger organisations as the sheer governance structure secures confidence (Wiliamson, 1979). to that extent in any case there exists a corporation look at and legal framework to provide assurance. Although it must be questioned that due to the non-distribution constraint in la rger companies whilst profits are not dispersed among management, there would be a much broader structure of employees, and hence remuneration and bureaucratic structure. Additionally, this ambiguity of the constitute of financing appears to be a common cause for concern amongst consumers, with research showing that 51% of the UK public would give more if they knew where the money is spent (Wiggins, 2009).Existing research into the consumer behaviour of charity link up products tends to be research based on the field of cause related marketing, rather than the individual end consumers behavioural characteristics into products that are not associate with for profit companies, such as donations and organisation marqueed purchases. Present research solely into non-profit organisations tends to be based on commercial non-profits such as nursing, hospital care and education institutions, where results and service can clear be seen and evidently proved. Thus far, in the case of non-pr ofits as a whole, research into the effects of product type and donation magnitude on willingness to contribute by Strahilevitz (1999) found that the effect of product type, hedonistic or utilitarian, is touched mainly by large donations rather than small donations Illustrating the idea that consumers are more willing to by a hedonistic product if it is linked to a large donation rather than a smaller one. moreover research by Bearden and Etzel (1982) shows that charity linked purchases can be considered to meet the need to belong to an aspiration group. Notable also is the peer pinch relating to the group to remain a member by exerting the appropriate beneficent behaviours. There also appears to be a difference in contributions by age group as found by Kotler and Andreasen (1996), Foster and Meinhard (1997) add to this with results showing a difference in the preferred medium of contribution methods by age group. In addition, charitable donations could be seen as a result of guil t for a lack of ethical actions in ones aliveness (Burnett and Lunsford, 1994, cited in Bonsu, Main, Wilner, 2008). Information of where the money is going is a all important(p) critical factor in repurchasing according to recent research by Proenca and Pereira (2008), showing that perhaps the commercial advertising sector of non-profit organisations is of high importance for maintaining an strong communications mix, as a channel of breeding for the consumer, increasing transparence of resource allocation and achievements.Understanding and guidance can be found from basic ideologies of consumer behaviour as a starting point. However one must remember that the purchase is for several(prenominal)one elses benefit rather than the consumer of the product. purchase closings can be considered to relate to Maslows hierarchy of needs, since the consumer decision psychologically involves a need recognition, which would be related to one of the tiers of the hierarchy, namely physiolog ical, safety, belongingness, self esteem, and self actualisation. In Maslows model we can relate charitable contributions as self actualisation, the desire to become all that one is capable of, although according to the system the need is the highest of the hierarchy and can only be achieved once all others have been fulfilled. (Koontz Weihrich, 2008, p. 291). Scramms model of communication (1955, cited in Smith, 2002) shows how consumer behaviour can be related to the marketing communications, since attitudes and sensings are based on the message accredited by the consumer from the brand. Therefore we can question the extent of communication messages occurring in smaller non-profit firms, since it is evident that larger organisations secernicipate in much more marketing activities. Moreover, general motives of consumer behaviour are thought to be linked to the nature of the consumer and how it directs actions. Self-monitoring relates to self-presentation and reflects the degr ee to which one adjusts ones behaviour according to social cues (Snyder, 1974, cited in Grace Griffin, 2006, p. 4). Consumers rating high in the self monitoring scale tend to be more aware and respondent to what others do within a social circle as such they are more likely to donate if it is the social norm, creating circles of influence.Consumer behaviour is a field of study that has only been in existence since the 1960s, and as such there are many elements that have not yet been theorised. Most models are in reference to the process of decision making, rather than the behavioural characteristics that resolve the decision process to buy a certain product. However, we must consider the extent that one could ever understand the mind of the buyer research trends would of course only show a generalisation of the sample, and of course the mindset will change by product, making studying behavioural characteristics increasingly difficult. surface acclaimed theorist Nicosia (1966, cited in bread maker et al, 1988), was among the first to present a model in this field, flowcharting the process of decision making, with the steps from a consumer being exposed to a communication message, to purchasing and having a recognised function purchase experience. Andreasens Model (1965, cited in Argyris, 1988) added to this, introducing the realms of attitude factors to the process, revolving around attitude formation and change occurring to changing external stimulus. A common issue of theorists and psychology in general is the issue that one will never know what is inside the consumers morose box, their psychological mindset in decision making, one can only allude to it. The Engel, Kollat and Blackwell (1968, cited in Baker et al, 1988) model refers to the black box as a central control unit, which consists of motives and response traits, including many factors such as perceptions, values, and past experience behavioural characteristics. Present teachings of consumer beha viour tend to refer to a uniform model depicting and grouping the elements that influence behaviour these are namely cultural, social, personal and psychological factors (Kotler, Wong, Saunders, Armstrong, 2005).Baker (Baker et al, 1988) has produced the most thorough model of buyer behaviour, a composition of all of the preceding(prenominal) theorists, in which the decision making characteristics can be clearly defined. The equation is as followsP=f(SPPC, EC, IS, PF, CBBR)In which a purchase (P) can be defined as a function of selective perception (SP) and the behavioural response (BR) of enabling conditions (EB), information search (IS), precipitating helping (PC) and cost-benefit analysis (CB) factors combined. So whilst it is relatively un cognize what is involved in the consumer decision making process, there are a number of key areas that can be alluded to for investigation, that appear in most models.In reference to charitable giving behaviours, treating the non-profit se ctor as anything other than one general research topic is uncommon, with researchers rarely distinguishing any sub categorisation of organisations, however some current settleings are valid for the basis of understanding the differentials in motives and behaviours. It is known and studied that charities may take on a certain pseudo-human personality and hence certain personality traits can aid marketing efforts (Sargeant, Hudson, West, Conceptualizing brand values in the charity sectorthe relationship between sector, cause and organization, 2008), based on the generalised theories of bodily personalities by McEnally de Chernatony (1999) and Palmer (1996) It was found that the traits held trends based upon the cause, sector and corporate cultural distinctions of the charity, which of course may differ by the various charity focuses and size. Sargeant (1999) , based on all existing cognition in the field, created a model of donating behaviour, shown below, in which an idea to fac tors influencing the decision process are elucidated. The issues that have particular relevance to examining the difference by charity size are namely the extrinsic determinants and perceptual reaction factors. However it must be noted that whilst the intrinsic determinants could apply to any charitable cause, the inputs in the form of marketing and communications can greatly relate the feelings of the consumer. Yet it must be noted that this model has yet to be tested, and is merely a portrayal of previous literature in the field.So whilst information and research is readily available and vast on the non-profit sector as a whole, research tends to be focused on either the cooperation of non-profit and for-profit firms using cause related marketing. That which differs from that area s mainly root in the service industry in the form of commercial non-profits and most other existing research on the consumer behaviour of non-profit companies is very shallow, not delving into the moti vations and issues of consumer behaviour. There is as of yet, no existing published research that compares the size of the non-profit organisation with the behavioural constraints and patterns, in particular with regards to solely donative non-profits.3. Industry analytic thinking3.1. Revenue Analysis The Importance of Individual Contributions in the Non-Profit IndustryThe morphological makeup of the non-profit industry is much like any other, whilst we regularly expose about and are bombarded with advertising communications from the corporate giants in the trade, the reality is that in terms of numbers, these large firms are a tiny percentage of the industry, yet account for the majority of the total revenues, which can be seen in the charts below.According to the Charities advocate Foundation, the total amount donated by individuals in the class between 2009 and 2010 was 10.6 billion excluding income in the form of legacies, which constitutes around one 5th of revenues in th e sector, which was 52 billion in the self alike(prenominal) year (Charities Aid Foundation, 2010 Philanthrophy UK, 2010). There forth, the importance of individual giving is high. Looking towards giving patterns in the get together Kingdom, we can see the importance of certain donor groups with the statistics that 54% of the population donated in a typical month in the historic period 2008 and 2009, with the median amount given being 10 However the importance of the larger donations can be seen with 7% contributing more than coulomb per month, which equates to just less than 50% of charitable donations from the public (Booth, 2010). enkindlely, looking at the amount of money donated as a percentage of total income, the top fifth of households give less than 1% of their income, while the poorest give 3% (National Council for Voluntary Organisations, 2010). Regardless, the United Kingdom in relation to the rest of the solid ground is one of the most generous countries, ranking 8th in the military personnel Giving Index of 2010, which is measured upon the proportion of the public who had given to charity, helped a stranger and given time to those in need (Charities Aid Foundation, 2010).Interesting to discover in terms of the relevance of the research conducted within this report, is the importance of individual giving from the general public to the various size and focus groups of charities. Whilst the statistics show that overall it is of great importance, it may be that other areas of financing are of more importance for different sized charities it would be thought that corporate donations and corporate social responsibility partnerships would be more important to the large international focused organisation than the small localised one.The above table shows research into the financial revenues of charitable organisations, attempting to decipher if there are differences in where the finance comes from between the three different types of charities, th ose with an international, national or local focus. This research study is not concerned with the numerical size of the organisation, but size in terms of the geographical spread of the benefits. In order to ensure validity of results, all of the charities included are of the same concern all work in the child poverty sector and are focused on the enhancement of childrens lives. Since it may be the case that financing trends vary according to the type of charity, for example a medically focused charity would received a great deal more revenues from governmental organisations than most. Noticeable in researching this topic was that most charitable organisations do not release enough information to the public in the one-year reports about where the revenue comes from, with only a handful of organisations providing enough information to be included in this study. This is even more apparent in the case of finding selective information for local charities.The results are fairly unreaso nable in finding a strong trend in the revenue breakdown yet we can make some conclusions based on the findings. What can be seen is that the international organisations tend to receive a larger percentage in individual general public donations than the other forms of organisations. Regarding corporate and governmental contributions, what is evident is that international and even national organisations, which tend to be larger and better known, receive a great deal more in corporate donations. Whilst local charities receive a great deal of income from other sources, a particular observation is that they are mostly funded by dint of other charitable organisations and non-governmental grants such as the national lottery funding. It could very well be that the local and even the smaller national charities do not have a strong enough presence in the world of media through advertising to gain sufficient individual contributions from the public. The averages can be seen depicted in the c harts below.3.2. An Outside Glance of Consumer Trust and authorityThe purchase decision to donate to charity, much like any for profit industry, involves a great deal of trust and confidence elements on the consumers part to work through the stages of decision making to finally decide to make a purchase. We can even go as far to enounce that the element of trust in donating is even more prominent than in other industries, since when consumers make a purchase decision, they are not receiving a physical product that they can feel post purchase gladness with, they are simply expected to believe the benefits of their purchase and that their money is being used well. It is often the case with most charities that a donation does not merit the information as to what activity or campaign it is being used for, limiting the knowledge even further, and thus possibly poignant trust.A consumer study survey conducted by Read Data asset Management Group in 2010 showed that 42% of consumers wo uld trust charities with their personal data which is in stark contrast to government who were least trusted by 36% (Read Data Asset Management Group Plc, 2010, pg 3). This is an interesting find in terms of confidence since the security of personal data is such a hot topic these days, with the public being incredibly cautious. The same study also examined reasons consumers would stop supporting a charity, finding that the highest rated responses were atrophy money on marketing efforts, over contacting consumers and overly emotional marketing communications. These results are quite contradictory to reality since these tend to be the actions interpreted by the well known large charities, which are also the charities that are most popular amongst donors. We can also consider consumer trust and confidence levels not to be standardised across the industry it may be that distrust stems from certain charity types or causes. There are a great number of pop up charities, created for crisis appeals, which are not well known or established as an entity and as such may not be as trusted. There is also the concern that such charities are started purely to merit the trustees a high wage.Consumer confidence can be greatly positively influenced by the presence of governmental restrictive bodies, rules and standards within industries. The past decade has seen a dramatic incline in the efforts to regulate and increase transparency, since the likes of the Enron scandal and other highly publicised dishonest business operations, resulting in the development of the Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002 to secure the business environment for consumers, and many UK equivalent legal regulations to the same context. Charities, akin to all organisations are required by law to abide to certain legal provisions. The United Kingdom adopted the EU Transparency Directive in 2007, which serves to march on appropriate disclosure of information, with the main areas of focus being periodic financial reporting and disclosure of major shareholdings (Ashurst, 2007). Supplementary to the above menti

Literature Review About E Banking In India Finance Essay

Literature Review About E relianceing In India Finance EssayAbstract collect to augment in social occasion and popularity of mesh, E- buzzwording has contributed in economic harvest- sentence to a huge extent. E- desireing is a modern-day service of process provided by bounds tout ensemble in all oer the world (Poon, 2008). E-banking came into existence from the put on of Automatic Teller Machines (ATMs), telephone banking, direct bill defrayment, electronic storeho example transfer (EFT) and the revolutionary on job banking (Poon,2008). E-banking refers to banking through profits. Indian clients ar slowly and steadily moving towards meshing Banking. E-banking service constitute ATMs, electronic information interchange, MICR, coin dispensers, Automated ledger posting system, Electronic clearing system, Tele banking, anyplace Anytime Banking, flexible money, E-cash, Smart cards and so onand conglomerate processing systems such as echt time processing, Batch pr ocessing system, Desktop publishing and so forth The interview paper is int residualed on understanding and identifying the products of e-banking its trends, advantages and disadvantages as well of harvest-feast of e-banking in India. investigateer excessively intends on providing suggestions after analyzing the various an another(prenominal)(prenominal) research papers, articles, journals etc. Firstly, emphasis is made to define the term e-banking followed by literature review and methodology planned.Literature reviewIntroductionE-banking in todays scenario is a very dynamic concept. It is a kind of self-importance service technology (Dixit Datta,2010). Competition is the pushing force for the introduction of e-banking. (Ziqi Liao and Michael Tow Cheung, 2003) .E-banking is speech talk of upstart and traditional banking products and service straight to nodes using electronic, interactive communication line of credits using computers. At a entrepotamental point, E- ba nking means context of habit up of a web page by a bank to provide culture about its products and go their features, advantages, disadvantages, prices , duration and other details. On the other hand, at an groundbreaking level, it refers to providing facilities such as accessing accounts, transferring funds, and buying monetary products or services online, Making payments et which is known as deedal E- banking (Sathye, 1999). E-banking includes the systems that enable fiscal institutions, clients, individuals or argument sectores whether small or big or medium racing shell to access accounts, carry out proceedings or obtain teaching on financial products and services through a public or private network using net income. (Vasanthakumari and Sheela rani, 2010)The conception of electronic banking has been defined in a effect of ways (Daniel, 1999). According to Karjaluoto (2002) electronic banking is a form that consists of several channels of distribution. Daniel (1999 ) has defined electronic banking as providing banking information, products and services by a bank to guests using a tot up of dissimilar auction pitch platforms that whoremonger be utilize with different terminal devices such as a personal computer, mobile phone, desktop softwargon, telephone or digital television. Electronic banking is in like manner frequently known as internet banking or e-banking or PC banking or Home banking or Phone Banking or tele banking.The first java based 24 hours electronic banking services were started by the first direct and Fujitsu cooperation. (Fujitsu, 2008).It is a modern and innovative banking channel for Indian Banks. (Vasanthakumari and Sheela Rani, 2010). E-banking is two transactional as well informative medium. (Vasanthakumari and Sheela Rani, 2010). E-banking involves customers using earnings to prevail their bank accounts and obtain information without visiting a bank separate. (Vasanthakumari and Sheela rani,2010). cyberspace banking involves providing information about bank products as well carrying online transactions such as transfer of funds, formatting up direct debit, buying and selling of products etc. It involves computer networks and telecommunication networks. The basic aim of e-banking is to provide services to end consumer so that they can carry out banking transactions through PC or mobile. e-banking has attracted attention of banks, securities trading firms, individual work linees, insurance companies, medium and ample scale businesses etc. e-banking is growing because e-commerce has grown at a fast rate. net banking can help in building sound strategies as its impact on appeal savings, revenue and satisfaction of customer is awe-inspiring (Gupta, 2008). e-banking influences business models of various banks, insurance companies, brokerage houses etc. internet banking has changed the banking patience as well as banking relationships in a positive way. E-banking provides banking prod ucts using internet including e-mails, modems and various networks other networks like rbiNET, NICNET, BRISKNET, RBINET, BANKNET. E-banking services includes ATMs, Electronic data interchange, MICR, Cash dispensers, Automated ledger posting system, Electronic clearing system, Tele banking, Anywhere Anytime Banking, Plastic money, E-cash, Smart cards etc and various processing systems such as Real time processing, Batch processing system, Desktop publishing etc.However it is very complicated for banks as well as customers to shape a best and appropriate approach to E-banking. (Dixit Datta,2010)History Of E-banking In India in advance E-banking In India came into existence the dealings between customers and banks was on one on one basis. The bank branch was involved in dealing with customers, payments, clearing, add applications, untieding accounts etc but the head office was involved in overall clearing, size of branch, training, sanctioning of loans, keeping track of accounts of customers and it does non deal instantly with customers.In the last 5 decades banking in India has evolved through various phases. Due to Globalization and Liberalization a new environment was seen in banks in the whole of the world. Banks offered new services with modish technologies such as anywhere and anytime banking, Tele banking, profit banking etcThe entry of foreign banks has pushed Indian banks to follow the path of latest technologies so as meet threat of competition and to retain their customer base. The growing competition and change magnitude expectations has led to increase in cognizance among banks on and role of internet banking. E-banking has revolutionized banking industry and is a product of innovation. in that respect is a prototype change in different parameters of transformation. Many factors both internal and external ar responsible for this shift. Competition from other bank group and other global factors argon forcing Indian banks to make these c hanges in their functioning. E-banking services stool replaced traditional services. (Uppal, 2008). The process of E-banking started in 1980s when RBI had set up two committees in a sequence in order to step up the pace of semiautomatic operations in the banking sector. A high-level committee was make under the chairmanship of Dr. C. Rangarajan, then governor of RBI, to plan out phased computerisation and mechanization in the banking industry over intent five-years from 1985 to1989.The main aim was to improve customer service and two models of branch automation were positive and were in practice. The second committee was Rangarajan committee which was formed during this five year time frame in 1988 to make a detailed perception plan for Computerization of banks and for extension of automation to other argonas such as funds transfer, e-mail, BANKNET, SWIFT, ATMs, E -banking, etc.The Government of India enacted the breeding applied science Act, 2000 (generally known as IT Act, 2000), with effect from 17 October 2000 to provide lawful status to electronic transactions and other electronic commerce. RBI had set up a Working Group on e-banking to examine different aspects of e-banking. This Group mainly focused on three major areas of E banking(1) Technology and earnest issues,(2) Legal issues and(3) Regulatory and supervisory issues.RBI veritable the recommendations of the Working Group, and issued guidelines on internet banking in India for implementation by banks in accordance with those recommendations. The Working Group also issued a report on e-banking covering different aspects of E-banking. (Vasanthakumari and Sheela Rani, 2010)In 1980s internet developed rapidly. In early 1980s customers had access to their accounts through computers of banks. Later internet developed as a network of communication and E-commerce came into existence. In May 1995, come up Fargo which was the first bank in world to provide access to accounts over internet cedee d its customers to see their accounts online.In India, ICICI was the first bank to begin internet banking in early 1997 with the name of Infinity. Later ICICI bank terminated online banking services but 1996-1998 for Internet it was the adoption phase but its usage increased in 1999 because of lower online charges, increase in PC penetration and Technology friendly atmosphere. E-banking started with use of ATMs and later included telephone banking, electronic fund transfer, direct bill payments and online banking.Present Status of E-banking In IndiaE-banking is a banking business approach. Banks nowadays know that internet opens up new horizons and is a major factor in success of a bank and helps a bank to grow internationally. Therefore, a number of banks in India have either take E-banking or are in the process of adopting and using it. (Malhotra Balwinder, 2009). E-banking provides right to use to worldwide connection from anywhere in world. Products presented by banks are offe red all over internet callable to which internet has become an important channel for delivery for banks. (Rahmath Safeena Hema Date Abdullah Kammani, 2011).India being a developing country has short infrastructure, low PC penetration, developing security protocols and consumer reluctance in homespun sector. But many banks are offering e-banking services. In a issue conducted by Rao and Prathima (2003) it was revealed that India still has extensive way to go in online banking services in comparison to other countries. e-banking is becoming popular in India(Gupta, 1999 Dasgupta, 2002).Internet is cheapest channel of delivery for bank and financial products as it reduces the branch networks and scales guttle the number of service staff. E-banking has also improved performance of banks. E-banking has also emerged as planned source for achieving higher efficiency, surmount of operations and reduction of cost by replacing paper based and labour exhaustive methods with automatic p rocesses which thus lead to higher productivity and profitability and efficiency. (Malhotra Balwinder, 2009)E-banking has led to increase in speed of communication and transactions for clients. E-banking is offering wide wave of services to its customers. Customers can communicate with banks and carry out transactions from anywhere in the world. Due to E-banking customers have changed their traditional way of banking to modernised banking i.e self service system by use of internet. (Curran and Meuter, 2007).Fast and furious growth of technology has affected lives of one million million millions of pot from all over the world. There are a large number of factors which influence the consumers attitude towards e-banking such as persons age, income, family size, inspiration and behaviour towards different banking technologies and attitude of every individual towards the new technology (Laforet and Li, 2005). But Many people do not use Internet banking in India delinquent to securit y reasons, lack of knowledge and also due of user friendliness. Protection and confidentiality are the most challenging problems approach by customers who aspire to operate in the e-commerce. Perceived risk was also one of the major factors affecting consumer adoption, as well as customer satisfaction, of E- banking services (Polatoglu and Ekin, 2001).The Banks in India started E-banking initially with uncomplicated and simple functions such as getting information about rate of interests, checking account balances, clearing and scheming loan eligibility. Later on the services were extended to online bill payments, electronic transfer of funds between accounts and way of Cash for businesses. no.adays the banks are using E- banking technology to meet the increased competition. Some new services are also being offered by e-banking such as payment of taxes, railway tag booking etc (Malhotra and Singh, 2010).But The banking sector in India was not instinctive to use e-commerce appl ications as according to them the transactions which are conducted electronically were open to hackers and viruses, which were not in their control. overly e-banking became unattractive because online services were a garland of insecurities, technology investment costs and a lack of market-readiness. (Abdulwahed and Yaqoub, 2006) . But it has been notice that Internet banking has changed the banking industry as well as banking relationships in a positive way.The plan of a bank to carry out business online depends on assets of the bank, years in operation, expenses ratio, deposits ratio, urban localisation, Non- fee income ratio. Internet banking whitethorn not have huge effect on the bottom line of most banks except for a a few(prenominal) newly born banks. Internet Banking is subject to various statues including Banking Regulations Act, 1949, the Reserve Bankof India Act, 1934, and the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999, instruction Technology Act, 2000, Indian Contract Ac t, 1872, the Negotiable Instruments Act, 1881, Indian proof Act, 1872, etc. The effect of E-banking on monetary and credit policies of Reserve Bank of India is a vital area of anxiety. E- banking in India is barely at its native and is in the growing stage stage which is solely dominated and controlled by both the Indian private and foreign banks. E-banking in India is used only by a few consumer segments. There are a number of risks associated with E- banking which have to be modelled by banks by using sophisticated systems and broad and proper use of technology. The legal framework should handle the issues associated with E- banking. E-banking phenomenon cannot be avoided by the Indian Banks, but to add a competitive advantage and to succeed, business models must be structured and ar localized properly in the long run to suit to Indian conditions. (Gupta,2008). But The factors which influence the adoption of Internet banking in India go away probably be a matter of come to t o both bankers and policy makers. ( Prakash and Malik, 2008)There are a handful of companies specializing in developing e-banking software, security software and website designing and maintenance, there are few online financial service providers. Nowadays ICICI is also offering wide range of services to customers.According to a number of authors E-banking is becoming popular in India (Gupta, 1999 Pegu, 2000 Dasgupta, 2002). However, it is still in its evolutionary stage. By the year 2006-2007, a large classy and reasonable E -banking market leave develop. Almost all the banks operating in India are having their websites. (Vasanthakumari and Sheela Rani, 2010).In India almost 12% of the 38.5 million Internet users use E- banking and it Is expect to increase to 16 million, according to follow by lAMAI. (Prakash and Malik ,2008). In a survey carried out by Malhotra and Singh (2006) it was shown that 48% of the commercial banks in India offer e -banking.Therefore for gaining complete control in present e-markets a purposeful and strategized approach is requisite.Classification of E-banking In IndiaThe Reserve Bank Of India (RBI) constituted a functioning group on E-Banking in India. This functioning group further divided the internet banking products in India into the following three types based on the levels of access granted-Information notwithstanding systemElectronic information transfer system amply electronic transactional systemMore advanced transactionsInformation Only systemIt provided general information such as rate of interests, placement of a bank branch, products offered, their features, advantages and disadvantages, application forms were available for purpose of downloading. e-mails are used for communication purposes. A Customers and a banks application system do not interact. Customer identification is not done and there is no fate of any unauthorized person getting into a banks production systemsvia Internet. (Geetika, Nandan Upadhyay , 20 08)Electronic information transfer systemIt provides information about a customer such as account balances, address, details of transactions etc. Customers are identified by their passwords and customers are provided information from banks application system. (Geetika, Nandan Upadhyay , 2008)Applying For New Banking runVery few banks provide the facility of making an application and alter newservices using internet because the RBI does not allow opening of banks accounts online.(Malhotra Balwinder ,2009) This prays high degree of safety and security. In this, the network boniface and the application systems are linked over inviolable communications. (Geetika , Nandan Upadhyay , 2008)More advanced transactionsIn this system various other services are provided such as insurance policies, Brokerage, investments, demat, Credit card payments, trading, shopping and various other services provided online. Private sector banks are more expected to offer insurance services and covers , brokerage, online trading online and shopping online. Many of the Internet banks have also started offering certain new services through E- banking such as tax payment, charity payment and railway tag end booking. Public sector banks have shown a tremendous performance in the providing the services such as tax payment and railway ticket booking online. (Malhotra Balwinder ,2009)Advantages and disadvantages of E-bankingThere are a number of drawbacks of e-banking such as it is time consuming, poor network availability, lack of knowledge among people, unsuitable location of ATMs, Lack of infrastructure, high setting up costs, chances of frauds and scams, customers feel e-banking is not sacrosanct etc.Apart from above mentioned disadvantages there are a number of other disadvantages of Internet banking. Some of them are survival, accessibility, security, acceptance, infrastructure, perception, etc.Many people do not use internet banking because they do not trust banking services t hrough internet. They doubt that their money is not safe and secure while being processed through internet banking. Many cases of frauds in India have been reported.Another disadvantage of E-banking is when a person has a query or question or faces a problem he/she cannot physically go to the bank and solve it but he/she has to call customer service department to solve it which might take a quid of time.Also some people avoid using E-banking because they do not understand how to use to and what is the procedure of getting started.Internet banking also poses a problem when the network is down and it might cause delay due to server problem when an important transaction is to be made.Starting up of E-banking requires large amount of investment which includes advertising cost, setting up cost, buy of technology etc.Many Internet banks dont have ATMs, due to which customers have to pay ATM fees. This costs them more.Lack of literacy and education regarding how to use internet is anothe r drawback of e-banking.Sometimes unknowingly computer system is damagedAlso there are a number of benefits of e-banking to both bank as well as customer. For example- Its cheaper to make transactions over internet, it provides satisfaction to customers, it improves the film of the bank, and customers get facility to manage every aspect of their bank account, It makes the transactions paperless, banking services are available round the clock helps customers to save time as they do not have to visit bank branch, customers can check costs of currency. Check stock market, check previous transaction history, transfer money, check which transactions have been cleared.Joseph et al. (1999) studied the influence of Internet on the delivery of banking service. This study identified six dimensions of E- banking service spirit i.e. convenience and accuracy, feedback and complaint management, efficiency, queue management, accessibility and customization. While on the other hand Jun and Cai (2 001) identified to seventeen service reference dimensions of E- banking service quality which are reliability, responsiveness, competence, courtesy, credibility, access, communication, understanding the customer, collaboration and continuous improvement, content, accuracy, ease of use, timeliness, aesthetics, security and diverse features. runServices are one of the primary benefits which a customer looks for while adopting a new channel.The consumers consider the benefits and weigh them against the costs associated. The Internet offers a lot of benefits to consumers, like any time anywhere banking, updated information, convenience, express transaction, etc.Future of E-banking In IndiaThe large banks in India allow for reveal out new and better ways in providing their services. Also they testament find out new ways to propose those services which will include use of new technologies. Wireless communication and mobile banking will increase at a very high rate due to which e-ban king will become omnipresent. While E-banking will grow at a high rate the current generation of customers will still require face to face interaction with banks due because of feeling of satisfaction and security and some functions like cash withdrawals, checking lockers etc require physical contact with the bank. (Southard Siau, 2004) guardianship In India the benefits of E-banking such as increased efficiency of employees, accuracy etc it is seen that futurity of E-banking is very bright. The Banks which are fully computerized have gained majority of industrialists, service class, business class, less enlightened as well as highly educated customers. Most of the customers will favour E-banking because preferences of customers are changing with time and they are becoming more demanding and they will prefer a bank which will provide them quick service. In this era of globalisation only banks which are technologically advanced will survive.(Uppal Chawla,2009)The afterlife of e-b anking depends heavily on the future development of technology. The one certainty is that it will continue to offer new delivery methods for banking services. (Southard Siau,2004)Poon W C (2008), Users Adoption of E-Banking Services The MalaysianP.K. Gupta, (2008), meshwork BANKING IN INDIA CONSUMERCONCERNS AND BANK STRATEGIES, GLOBAL JOURNAL OF BUSINESS RESEARCH al-Quran 2Number 1R.K. Uppal, (2008).Customer Perception of E-Banking Services of Indian BanksSome Survey demonstrate Icfai journal of Bank Management, Vol. VII, No.1,Ms.H.Vasanthakumari and Dr. S. Sheela Rani (2010 ) ROLE OF E BANKING SERVICES IN THE BANKING SECTOR SRM Management Digest ,vol 8 pg 43Dasgupta, P. (2002) Future of e-banking in India. Available online at www.projectshub.comGupta, D. (1999) Internet banking where does India stand?, Journal of Contemporary Management, December, Vol. 2, No. 1Ziqi Liao and Michael Tow Cheung, (2003) communications OF THE ACM Vol. 46, No. 12ve.Rahmath Safeena, Hema Date and A bdullah Kammani, (2011)Internet banking adoption in emrging economy International Arab Journal of e-Technology, Vol. 2, No. 1,Laforet, S and Li, X. (2005). Consumers attitudes towards online and mobile banking in China. International Journal of Bank Marketing, Vol. 23, No. 5 pg. 362-380.Pooja Malhotra and Balwinder Singh(2010), An analysis of Internet banking and its determinants in India, Vol. 20 No. 1, pp. 87-106, Emerald Group Publishing Limited pg 94-98, 87-88Curran, M. jam and Meuter, L. Matthew (2007) Encouraging existing customers to switch to self-service technologies put a teeny fun in their lives Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice, 15 (4), 283-298Polatoglu, V. and Ekin, S. (2001). An empiric investigation of the Turkish consumers JIBC marvelous 2010, Vol. 15, No.2Abdulwahed Mo. Sh. Khalfan and Yaqoub S.Y. AlRefaei, (2006). Factors influencing the adoption of internet banking in Oman a descriptive case study analysis. International Journal of Financial Services Ma nagement, 1 (2/3), 155-172.P.K Gupta (2008)internet banking in India-consumer concerns and bank strategies Global journal of Business Research vol 2 no 1 pg 6 -8Sathye, M. (1999). Adoption of internet banking by Australian consumers an empirical investigation. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 17 (7), 324-34.Dixit M. And Datta S.(2010) bankers acceptance of E-banking among Adult Customers An Empirical Investigation in India Journal of Internet Banking and Commerce, August 2010, vol. 15, no.2 pg 1Daniel, E. (1999) Provision of electronic banking in the UK and the Republic of Ireland International Journal of Bank Marketing, 17(2), 72-82.Ajay Prakash and Garima Malik, (2008) Empirical Study of Internet Banking in India Vol.1 . 3Geetika, Nandan T Upadhyay A(2008) internet Banking In India-issues and prospects The Icfai Journal of Bank Management, Vol. VII, No. 2, 2008 pg 48-49IAMAI (2006), IAMAIs Report Online Banking 2006, http//www.iamai.in/, Accessed on May 10, 2011.Uppal R.K Chawla R(2009)E-banking Channel-Based Banking ServicesAn empirical study The Icfaian Journal of Management Research, Vol. 1 0 VIII, No. 7 pg 21-22Southhard P.B Siau K (2004)A survey of online E-banking Retail initiatives COMMUNICATIONS OF THE ACM October 2004/Vol. 47, No. 10 pg 102

Microstructure-mechanical Property Relationships

Micro expression- mechanized Property RelationshipsMicro social system-mechanical berth relationships in racy medium execrable all(a)oy stigmas for self-propelled applicationsChapter 1 mental hospitalThe obtainment of stain is an ancient push which has evolved over time. Where and when vane was send-off created is little-known and a topic of much than debate, however almost historians conceptualise early production of vane originates from China from as early as 202BC. A afterwards change of trade name named Wootz firebrand was later substantial in India, which utilise wind power to fuel a furnace producing nigh virginal marque. In the 11th century China developed advance pull ahead was the first country to mass disclose blade. Two regularitys were developed. A berganesque method which evoked inhomogeneous mark, and a c atomic number 18 for which that relied on partial de nonp aril Cisation by essence of repeat forging chthonian a glacial bl ast, this was seen as the top-notch method, and unrivalled which lead on to the Bessemer lick 1.The Bessemer process involved exploitation a blast furnace to extract iron from its ore and is the basis of raw make extraction. brand is stated firstly by extracting iron from its ore. lading-lift extraction differs meagerly from separate(a) get ons as it weed completely be tack together course in oxide construct. This means that a smelting process is necessary. This involves a reduction answer fol clinical depressi iodined by alloying with do- keeneral brokers like ascorbic acid to stabilise and strong auguren the mark. Iron smelting requires a elevatedschool temperature which produces a ferrous tangible made of a junto of iron and sword. The add-on of alloying elements such(prenominal)(prenominal) as ascorbic acid come a broom the materials properties greatly. ever-changing the temperature at which the iron is smelted falls the pattern of the result ant poise, giving chute to the hazard of producing steels with varying properties which atomic ups bouncy 18 sufficient for a range of applications. In the self-propelled industry, eubstance frames were originally made of unspokenwood. This was re depositd in 1923 when the Ameri mountain drum roll accompany developed steel sheet production. The wooden frames were inferior in nil absorption which was a big safety bulge. poise was in any case much easier to miscellany than wood and did not warp over time. As the cable car has evolved over time, thither has been an emergence public aw atomic number 18ness of the environmental impact of the car. This has forced even outrs to produce brightness cars which argon much economical. This brought about the matuproportionn of thin, super formable sheet steel. The main(prenominal) competitor to steel in the self-propelling industry is atomic number 13, which offers a much better efficiency to slant proportionality and withal a better resistance to eroding. so far steel is palliate the most normally practised material mainly collectible to get production cost. Increasing competition from atomic number 13 is forcing the development of modern steels. sword course has a eminenter formability and wing than aluminium which is superstar of the reasons it is use so extensively in the automotive sector. This merchantman be seen in come across 1.1 auspicate 1.1- income tax return vividness vs total elongation of aluminium alloys and automotive steels 3 Ultra upset century (ULC) steels atomic number 18 employ unremarkably in the production of automobiles. Their, highy formability and suitability for toothsome dip electrical make them precise attractive to automobile producers4. Pressure is be frame up on the manufacturers to produce lightweight cars that minimise emissions without compromise safety. Metallic properties demand to achieve this consist of a high malleable authority, high r- value, close ductility and to a fault the ability to be made resistant to eating away (either naturally or by dint of the use of chemical surface interposition). various(a) high performance steels overhear been developed to meet these requirements, of these, one of the most classic being HSLA steels. high-pitched force play piteous alloy steels propose a much better skill to weight dimension than received rugged b upset steels al low-downing for capillary grades to be utilize, saving weight. HSLA steels prevail a atomic number 25 heart and soul of up to 1.5%, as well as microalloying elements such as cinque and titanium. HSLA steels ar increasingly replacing traditional low light speed steels for galore(postnominal) automotive parts. This is receivable to their ability to reduce weight without compromising strength and dent resistance. Typical applications involve door-intrusion beams, chassis members, reinforcing and climb brackets, command and suspension parts, bumpers, and wheels 5. High strength low alloy steel properties be determined by the way in which they ar tasteful. High oceanic abyss drawability, stinkpot be achieved by means of precipitation of elements by tempering to produce a strong 111 re watch crystallizinglisation texture 7, producing highly formable steels which argon really preferred for automotive applications. In this study, ii grades of IFHS skins atomic number 18 analyze. A titanium only stabilised steel grade and a titanium-vanadium stabilised steel grade. These pay back been treated utilize a Viking tube furnace and studied using a s posteriorning negatron microscope, Photoshop and Optilab Softw atomic number 18. Both steel grades receive been studied using carefully selected thermo mechanical awaken preaching cycles. The high temperatureing variables are pass judgment to originator varying actions to the mechanical properties and microstructure of the 2 materials. The entree of vanadium in one of the steel grades is similarly expected to watch the mechanical properties. With the data obtained from my experiments I hope to determine the optimum touch track for similar HSLA steels.Chapter 2AimsCarry out selective agglomerate anneal heat sermons on two microalloyed High ensnareualness IF flake steels. nib whit surface evolution samples using s stinkerning electron microscopy and quantitave optic microscopy techniques.Measure mechanical properties of obtained samples using validity and bendable examination techniques set the optimum touch peculiar(prenominal)s, resulting in optimum mechanical property characteristics.Chapter 3Literature Review3.1 AUTOMOTIVE STEELSAutomotive manufacturers make use of many diametric admixtures in the production of cars, of which the most predominant being steel. This is for several(prenominal)(prenominal) reasons, steel is relatively easy to recycle in peerity with polymers and a luminium, and this is an issue which is growing in importance as the public are comme il faut much(prenominal) and more than environmentally aware. Steel is to a fault a in truth full(a) material in terms of its practicality, as it is tardily welded, has good formability, elongation and ductility. As the environmental impact of cars is becoming more and more important, stringent regulations regarding emissions are being forced upon manufacturers. One of the fall asleepway that manufacturers ache chosen to meet these requirements is to make the cars lighter by change by reversal from bonkers steel to high strength steel grades which enables components to have a finely cross section, saving weight.The 3 main types of steels utilize in automobiles directly areLow strength (IF and mild steels),High strength ( coulomb manganese, broil readiness, IFHS and HSLA)Advanced high strength steels (dual-phase, labyrinthian phase, trans constitution generate malleability and m atensitic steels)These steel types can be seen downstairs on finger 3.1 analyze their elongation and strength. get word 3.1 Classification of automotive steels 8. 3.1.1 pocket- coat of it Steels Mild steels are normally anchor in two divers(prenominal) forms for automotive purposes. pull Quality and Aluminium killed. These are both garish to manufacture are apply for high volume parts. They are usually of a ferrite microstructure. 8 3.1.2 interstitial Free Steels IF steels are utilize for car dust panels extensively referable rotundly to their copious drawability. The high elongation achieved in semblance with new(prenominal) steel grades can be seen in betoken 3.1.The main characteristic of IF steel is a low ascorbic acid and nitrogen limit. These elements are re driftd from resultant by adding specific elements for alloys. unremarkably used elements for this microalloying process take on atomic number 25, siemens, titanium and nota bene. As well as a deep drawability, IF steel have low bring forth strength neverthe slight a low dent resistance which is undesirable for certain automotive applications 6 cook indurate SteelsBH steels keep carbon in solution either during treat originally it is precipitated or during the paint baking state 8. This girds the steel by means of substantialityness solution strengthen, resulting in steel with both high formability and high strength.3.1.4 ampere-second- manganese Steels carbon copy-manganese steels are substantialness solution strengthened and are used in strip form on automobile bodies, although they are becoming replaced by lighter steel grades. They offer high drawability and are relatively cheap to produce. 9 D.T.Llewellyn Steel Metallurgy and Applications, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Great Britain, 1992. 3.1.5 High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steels HSLA steels are strengthened through the addition of microallying elements. These act with the carbon and nitrogen inside the steel to form carbides and nitrides. Common elements include Nb, V and Ti. The resultant steel has both high strength and a high formability due to rattling fine cereal surfaces 10Dual- physique (DP) SteelsDual-phase steels contain two phases indoors their microstructure. These are ferrite and martensite. This two phase structure is produced through a complex series of contolled heating and cooling. Martensite personas are produced by heating and quickly cooling. It is the marteniste lands tha rejoin the hardness to the material where as the ferrite regions are much softer. The structure of DP steels call backs advantages of the properties of each of the phases, where the hard maternsite regions are surrounded by softer ferrite which reduces unannealedness, shown in inning 3.2. DP steel has good ductility, low coming back strength but high cut back hardening rate 8. forecast 3.2 Microstructure of DP steel 8. 3.1.7 Trans institution-Induced Plasticity ( move around) Steels TRIP steels consist of a mainly ferrite microstructure with a low austenite marrow at bottom the matrix. An isothermal hold during production at an median(a) temperature is used to produce bainite 8. Strength is change magnitude by transformationing of austenite regions to harder martensite regions. TRIP steels have a good work hardening rate and good strength. function hardening in TRIP steels continues at high screen levels than those of DP steels so TRIP steels is a superior material from this aspect. Figure 3.3 shows the multi phase microstructure of TRIP steel.Figure 3.3 Microstructure of TRIP steel 8.Martensitic (MS) SteelMS steels are mainly of a martensitic microstructure but contain fiddling measuring rods of ferrite and bainite. During heat handling the steel is rapidly cooled transforming austenite into martensite. This gives a actually high bendable strength since martensite produces a very hard material, but the drawback is this besides gives a low formability. In order to overcome this low formability further affect such as heat treatments must(prenominal) be undertaken. 11 3.1.9 High Strength interstitial Free (HS-IF) Steels HSIF steels are strengthened through the addition of microalloying elements. Commonly used alloying elements include P, B, Si, Mn, Ti, N. The combinations in which the microalloying elements are used have an event on the properties of resultant steel allowing a range of requirements to be met. HSIF steels can produce nearly twice the potential profess strength as stodgy IF steels, although in that location is a reduction in formability.3.2 Microalloying Elements3.2.1 century Carbon is one of the most important interstitial elements at bottom steel, giving very different mechanical properties as its percentage depicted object is altered and therefrom must be studied in depth. Carbon is an element commonly form in automotive steels due to its high strength properties. Although adding carbon a mplifications strength, it also affects the formability, i.e. its deep drawability. A set of experiments were carried out to determine the frame of carbon content within steel.When analysing the bendable audition results it was noted that the nett tensile strength, the proof filter out and the fall in bloodlineing all change magnitude as the count of carbon subjoind in the steel. The plastic region as well as the general elongation of the steel under tensile focusing decreased as the carbon content increased. These are prodigious changes in the mechanical properties. Hardness and Tensile strength increase as carbon content approaches 0.85% C as shown in designing 3.4. The elongation percentage decreases as the carbon content increases. This bring ups that the more carbon collapse in the material, the stronger and smooth tractable it lives. Figure 3.4 Affect of Carbon content in Steel wages StrengthCarbon content influences the yield strength of steel because c arbon molecules able into the interstitial crystal grille sites of the body-centred cubic arrangement of the iron molecules. The interstitial carbons make it more tricky for any disruption to guide as it reduces mobility. This has a hardening import on the coat.Phase platUsing the phase diagram one can understand why the properties of steels change with differing carbon content. Figure 3.5 Phase Diagram The da Gamma phase, relates to an Austenite range which has a Face Centred cuboidal (FCC) structure. The important phase relates to a ferritic Body Centered Cubic crystal structure. Ferrite is free-base extensively in automotive steels, its BCC structure is much less heavyset than the FCC of austenite which makes it easily formable and therefore relatively cheap to manufacture. Fe3C refers to cementite and the diverseness of important (ferrite) + cementite is called pearlite. On the phase diagram steels only collapse up to about 1.4% carbon. The eutectoid point is at 723 degrees and is where there are tercet phases in equilibrium. The eutectoid spell is Fe-0.83%C. The reaction that happens at the eutectoid point isaustenite ferrite + cementitegamma alpha + Fe3CHigh carbon content means a great precense of austenite, whereas low carbon content forget give less austenite and a more ferritic microstructure. The affect of these differing microstructures is reflected in their mechanical properties. This is because Ferrite is soft and ductile and iron carbide is hard and unannealed. It can be seen by looking at figure 3.5 that as the carbon content is increased, strength increases. This relationship exceeds up to the eutectoid point after which it starts to reduce. This where cementite scintilla-boundaries are created. The figure to a lower place shows how the varying content of carbon in steel affects its properties and suitability for different applications. Figure 3.6 Carbon Steel ApplicationsLever ruleThe lever rule can be used to cal culate expected proportions of the phases present in each of the tried and true carbon steel specimens. These determine can then be compared to the values obtained through testing. Figure 3.7 Lever RuleCalculationsa = Ferrite a + Fe3C = Pearlite 0.1wt%C Normalised Steel Tensile type % Ferrite = (0.8- 0.1) = 0.897 (0.8-0.02) % Pearlite= (0.1- 0.02) = 0.103 (0.8- 0.02) 0.4wt%C Normalised Steel Tensile Specimen % Ferrite = (0.8- 0.4) = 0.513 (0.8-0.02) % Pearlite= (0.4- 0.02) = 0.487 (0.8- 0.02) 0.8wt%C Normalised Steel Tensile Specimen % Ferrite = (0.8- 0.8) = 0 (0.8-0.02) % Pearlite= (0.8- 0.02) = 1 (0.8- 0.02)These results suggest that as the carbon content increases the pearlite to ferrite ratio also increases. So the ratio of Pearlite to ferrite increases as carbon content is increased the material is made harder, stronger and more brittle but less ductile. These results obtained using the lever rule animation the results obtained from the tensile test, showing the steel with the highest carbon content to be the least(prenominal) ductile and most brittle. The results are also supported by the findings from the hardness test which shows the steel with the highest carbon content to be the hardest. 3.2.2 Titanium The addition of Titanium to IFHS steels is particularly useful in the manufacturing of strip steels where good drawability is a requirement. The addition of Ti or Nb results in a lour Yield Strength/Tensile Strength ratio giving an increased formability. This can be seen in figure 3.8. When Titanium reacts with Carbon and northward it forms TiC and tail, these precipitates work to delay recrystallisation of austenite, and so refining the particles to a favourable down(p)er size 12.Figure 3.8 The tack of Titanium and Niobium on Yield Srength/UTS ratio 12 Titanium precipitates exist within steels and these affect the mechanical properties. TiN precipitates benefactor to promote recrystallisation and encourage the 111 texture. TiS precipitates are commonly found in the austenite region as well as Ti4C2S2, Ti4C2S2 is formed by reacting with Carbon and in the highest regions of the austenite range there is little to no Carbon. These conditions are created at very high temperatures similar to those during hot coil processes. This leaves the steel highly formable and suitable for deep drawability application such as car body panels. It is very difficult however to form Ti4C2S2 as it is less stalls than TiS, although it can be encouraged through specific heat treatment processes. 13 3.2.3 fin Titanium is commonly added with Niobium to steels to increase formability through precipitation. notwithstanding these additions can result in a retardation of recrystallisation meaning a higher(prenominal) temperature or longer soaking time is required for recyrstallisation to occur. quintet offers a replacement to Niobium in the form of carbides and nitrides, VC and VN, which does not cause such a d rastic retardation of recyrstallisation. This is attractive to manufacturers as start temperatures and shorter processing time during annealing are more cost answerive. The military issueuality of Vandium in essentially set outing the recrystallisation temperature is shown in Figure 3.9.Figure 3.9 The effect of Ti + Nb, Ti + V and V stabilised steels on the Temperature for cop Recrystallisation in 30 Seconds 44. Figure 3.9 shows that the V only stabilised steel recrystallises at a lower temperature than the TiV and TiNb steels. 3.2.4 Sulphur Sulphur is found in all steels including interstitial Free High Strength Steels. It acts as an interstitial elements and other elements to form precipitates such as TiS, MnS and Ti4C2S2. These precipitates have different set up on the mechanical properties of the material. In particular the precipitation of carbo sulfides is beneficial to the steel as this causes the steel to form in the austenite range and helps to reduce the TiC for mation which could occur during heat treatment processing and cause the material to become less likely to form the 111 texture.13 Promoting Ti4C2S2 therefore encourages the formation of the favourable 111 texture, increasing the formability of the material. In order for Ti4C2S2 to develop, Sulphur, Carbon and Titanium must all be present, and processed in such a way as to form a reaction, which can difficult. 3.2.5 Niobium Niobium if found extensively in IFHS Steels reacting with carbon to form carbides such as NbC. Solute Niobium can be used to segregate austenite and ferrite grain boundaries and increase the strength of the austenite region 14. As Niobium content increases the r-value decreases as well as the ductility. Generally Nb content is minimised as much as possible as the authoritative effect it has on strength in the austenite region is relatively small and is outweighed by the disallow effect it has on ductility. Boron can be used instead of Niobium as it has a much greater effect on strength than Niobium. This can be seen in figure 3.9Figure 3.9 Average Flow Stress vs. Temperature for B, C, and Nb and Mo solutes in steel 15. 3.2.6 Phosphorus Phosphorus, P, is a common alloy of IFHS steel, offering increases in strength through solid solution hardening. Adding Phosphorus can also have a direct effect on the grains within a structure by increasing the star sign-Petch slope (described below). Adding P however can have a negative effect on the brittleness of the material. This can be particularly problematic during the cold working process where brittle fall in is a intelligible possibility. The mansion house-Petch relationship says that as the grain size decreases the yield strength of a material increases. This is due to the crack-ups piling up at grain boundaries, which act as barriers to disturbance bm at low temperatures. If the grain size is large, then a high number of dislocations will pile up at the edge of the slip plane. Wh en the focus exceeds a critical value the dislocations cross the boundary. So the larger the grain size, the lower the applied stress required to reach this critical stress at the grain boundary, meaning the larger the grain size, the lower the yield stress due to easier dislocation movement. This is true down to a grain size of 100nm. Below this size the yield strength remains invariant or starts to decrease. This is effect is called the reverse Hall-Petch effect. Phosphorus along with ti and Manganese are added via solid solution strengthening to strengthen steel allowing for a thinner sheet of metal to be used for car body panels, and thus reducing the weight. Phosphorus is the most effective out of the three elements in terms of cost and strengthening effect. This can be seen below in figure 3.11 where the effects of P and S additions are compared.Figure 3.11 equality of Stress vs. Temperature between Phosphorus and Silicon microalloyed Steels 16. Phosphorus is also found in the form of FeTiP precipitates. These precipitates have a negative affect on strength and drawability. The effects of these precipitates are greater in throne annealed steels than in continuous steels. This is due to the long soaking times required in batch annealing which provides optimum conditions and sufficient time for these precipitates to form 17. 3.2.7 Manganese Manganese is added through solid solution strengthening to IFHS steels in a low concentration in order to react with the Sulphur to produce MnS precipitates. These MnS precipitates act to refine grain structure during processing when there is a transformation in phase between austenite and ferrite. Mn is to strengthen steels through solid solution strengthening. The effect of Mn is relatively small in the austenite range but compared to the ferrite range. This is due to a difference in Mn solubility between the austenite and ferrite ranges. Where Mn in ferrite is 10wt% higher than in austenite 18 Mn acts to stabilize the austenite region and slows down the rate of austenite transformation and also the temperature at which the transformation takes place. This lowering of transformation temperature between austenite and ferrite promotes finer grains through grain refinement. Mn can be found in oxide and sulphide forms as well as combinations of the two, oxysulphides. These oxides and sulphides act to deoxidise and desulphurise the steel. When in sulphide form, MnS helps to reduce embrittlement of steel without reducing hardness. When mixed with common impurities such as Al2O3, SiO2, MnO, CaO, CaS and tarboosh an increase in hardness and strength occurs 19. When in the oxide form, MnO at the surface acts a barrier layer to anticipate surface oxidisation and corrosion. 3.2.8 Silicon Silicon is a useful element and is used to increase the strength through solid solution strengthening, although there is a agree as increasing Silicon content decreases ductility. Silicon is also found in oxide form, as silicon dioxide. Silicon dioxide is found with Manganese Oxide or as Silicomanganese to give a strong oxygen stabilisation and prevent corrosion of steel. 20. 3.2.9 Aluminium Aluminium is used to deoxidise steel by reacting with oxygen within the steel to form Al2O3. These Aluminium Oxides are later outside leaving an oxygen free steel. However the low immersion of Aluminium means that oxidisation could occur at the steel port wine resulting in corrosion. Aluminium content can have a negative effect on formability. This is due to the precipitation of AlN during recrystallisation preventing the 111 development and thus preventing the formation of finer grains. So minimising the amount of AlN in solid solution results in higher formability. A more stable alternative to AlN which is commonly used in IFHS steels is TiN.3.3 Hardening and processingThere are many different compositions of steel which offer various advantageous properties. The main reason for neut ering composition or alloying is to strengthen the material. This can be done in several ways 3.3.1 Precipitation strengthening This process uses heat treatment to entrap the yield strength of a material. As temperature changes during heat treatment processing, fine particles are produced due to differing melting points of impurities. These fine particles impede dislocation movement. This in turn reduces the ductility and plasticity of the material and increases its hardness. 3.2.2 Solid solution strengthening Solid solution strengthening is a form of alloying. It is a commonly used technique to improve the strength of a material. Atoms of the alloying element are added to the crystal latticework of the base metal via diffusion. There are two ways in which this can occur, depending on the size of the alloying alloying element. These are via substitutional solid solution, and interstitial solid solution.Substitutional solid solutionThis takes place when the sizes of the alloy ing atoms are equal in size to the base atoms, (Differing in size by no more than 15% according to the Hume-Rothery rules) The alloying atoms replace the solvent atoms and suck up their lattice positions. The solute atoms can produce a slight distortion of the crystal lattice, due to the size variation. The amount of distortion increases with the size of the solute atom. This distortion has an effect on microstructural properties. The formation of slip planes is altered making dislocation movement more difficult, meaning a higher stress is required to move the dislocations. This gives the material a higher strength. A generalisation associated with substitution is that large substitutional atoms put up the structure under compressive stress, and small substitutional atoms give tensile stress.Interstitial solid solutionThis occurs when the alloying atoms are much smaller than the base atoms. The alloying atoms fit into spaces within the crystal lattice. This is the case with carbo n in steel, where carbon is a solute in the iron solvent lattice. The carbon atoms are less than half the size of the iron atoms so an interstitial solid solution forms.3.3.3 bear on The final properties of steel are greatly affected by the air in which it is first made and then processed. Typical processes include steel making, casting, hot and cold rolling and annealing. Each individual process has a distinct affect on the properties of the steel. To make the steel free from interstitial elements, Ti and Nb are often added to react with interstitials after a process called vacuum degassing. Vacuum degassing is the name given to the process where a metal is melted within a vacuum and the gasses are evaporated out. anxious and cold rollingHot rolling is the first process to take place after steel making. After steel has been cast into analogous slabs or billets it is the rolled under a high temperature to reduce its cross sectional thickness. The hot rolling process is undert aken at a temperature in a higher place that at which recrystallisation occurs. Hot rolling reduces allows recrysallisation to occur during processing (moral force recrystallisation) and the material is leftfield stress free due the new grain nucleation and equiaxed grains. Effect of hot working on microstructure Hot working occurs at high temperatures, this means that there is often enough thermal energy present for recrsytallisation to occur during deformation. This is called dynamic recrystallisation and it occurs with most metals, apart from aluminium. Recrystallisation occurs during the working process and also as the metal is cooling. Dynamic recrystallisation occurs by new grains nucleating at existing grain boundaries. The amount of recyrstallisation depends on several factors. It depends on the strain rate, temperature and amount of strain on the metal. Generally, as strain within the metal increases, so does the amount of recrystallisation. cold working is when stee l is plastically deform below its recrystallisation temperature. This process increases the yield strength due to the plastic deformation causing slight defects within the microstructure of the metal. These defects make it difficult for slip planes to move. The grain size of the metal is also reduced, making the material harder through a process called Hall petch hardening. Hall Petch hardening, also known as grain boundary strengthening, increases materials strength by altering the grain size. This is because grain boundaries act as barriers to dislocation movement. So altering the grain size, through hot and cold rolling at various temperatures and rates will have an effect on dislocation movement and yield strength. Cold working will increase the strength of the metal by making it increasingly difficult for slip to occur. However as more and more of the larger grains split to form smaller grains the ductility is greatly reduced as the material hardens. finally cracking would occur. To avoid this, the material is annealed. Cold working occurs at a temperature below 0.4 of the metals melting point. Some of the energy created by the process is expelled as heat but some energy is stored within the structure pose it into a high energy state. The energy is stored within the grain boundaries of the deformed crystals and within the stress fields of the dislocations created through the plastic deformation. The structure is highly express after cold working and would prefer to return to its occasion low energy state. It is howeveMicrostructure-mechanical Property RelationshipsMicrostructure-mechanical Property RelationshipsMicrostructure-mechanical property relationships in high strength low alloy steels for automotive applicationsChapter 1IntroductionThe production of steel is an ancient process which has evolved over time. Where and when Steel was first created is unknown and a topic of much debate, however most historians believe earliest production of st eel originates from China from as early as 202BC. A later form of steel named Wootz Steel was later developed in India, which used wind power to fuel a furnace producing nearly pure steel. In the 11th century China developed steel further was the first country to mass produce steel. Two methods were developed. A berganesque method which produced inhomogeneous steel, and a process which that relied on partial decarbonisation through repeated forging under a cold blast, this was seen as the superior method, and one which lead on to the Bessemer process 1.The Bessemer process involved using a blast furnace to extract iron from its ore and is the basis of modern steel extraction.Steel is produced firstly by extracting iron from its ore. Iron extraction differs slightly from other metals as it can only be found naturally in oxide form. This means that a smelting process is required. This involves a reduction reaction followed by alloying with additional elements like carbon to stabilise and strengthen the steel. Iron smelting requires a high temperature which produces a ferrous material made of a combination of iron and steel. The addition of alloying elements such as carbon affect the materials properties greatly. Changing the temperature at which the iron is smelted affects the phase of the resultant steel, giving rise to the possibility of producing steels with varying properties which are suitable for a range of applications. In the automotive industry, body frames were originally made of hardwood. This was replaced in 1923 when the American Rolling Company developed steel sheet production. The wooden frames were inferior in energy absorption which was a big safety issue. Steel was also much easier to form than wood and did not warp over time. As the automobile has evolved over time, there has been an increasing public awareness of the environmental impact of the car. This has forced manufacturers to produce lighter cars which are more economical. This brou ght about the development of thin, highly formable sheet steel. The main competitor to steel in the automotive industry is Aluminium, which offers a much better strength to weight ratio and also a better resistance to corrosion. However steel is still the most commonly used material mainly due to lower production cost. Increasing competition from aluminium is forcing the development of modern steels. Steel naturally has a higher formability and elongation than aluminium which is one of the reasons it is used so extensively in the automotive sector. This can be seen in Figure 1.1Figure 1.1- Yield strength vs total elongation of aluminium alloys and automotive steels 3 Ultra low carbon (ULC) steels are used commonly in the production of automobiles. Their, highy formability and suitability for hot dip galvanising make them very attractive to automobile producers4. Pressure is being put on the manufacturers to produce lightweight cars that minimise emissions without compromising safe ty. Metallic properties required to achieve this consist of a high tensile strength, high r- value, good ductility and also the ability to be made resistant to corrosion (either naturally or through the use of chemical surface treatment). Various high performance steels have been developed to meet these requirements, of these, one of the most important being HSLA steels. High strength low alloy steels provide a much better strength to weight ratio than conventional low carbon steels allowing for thinner grades to be used, saving weight. HSLA steels have a manganese content of up to 1.5%, as well as microalloying elements such as vanadium and titanium. HSLA steels are increasingly replacing traditional low carbon steels for many automotive parts. This is due to their ability to reduce weight without compromising strength and dent resistance. Typical applications include door-intrusion beams, chassis members, reinforcing and mounting brackets, steering and suspension parts, bumpers, and wheels 5. High strength low alloy steel properties are determined by the way in which they are processed. High deep drawability, can be achieved through precipitation of elements by annealing to produce a strong 111 recrystallisation texture 7, producing highly formable steels which are very desirable for automotive applications. In this study, two grades of IFHS strips are studied. A titanium only stabilised steel grade and a titanium-vanadium stabilised steel grade. These have been treated using a Viking tube furnace and studied using a scanning electron microscope, Photoshop and Optilab Software. Both steel grades have been studied using carefully selected thermo mechanical heat treatment cycles. The heating variables are expected to cause varying effects to the mechanical properties and microstructure of the two materials. The addition of vanadium in one of the steel grades is also expected to influence the mechanical properties. With the data obtained from my experime nts I hope to determine the optimum processing route for similar HSLA steels.Chapter 2AimsCarry out selective batch annealing heat treatments on two microalloyed High Strength IF strip steels.Measure grain size evolution samples using scanning electron microscopy and quantitave optical microscopy techniques.Measure mechanical properties of obtained samples using hardness and tensile testing techniquesDetermine the optimum processing characteristics, resulting in optimum mechanical property characteristics.Chapter 3Literature Review3.1 AUTOMOTIVE STEELSAutomotive manufacturers make use of many different metals in the production of cars, of which the most predominant being steel. This is for several reasons, steel is relatively easy to recycle in comparison with polymers and aluminium, and this is an issue which is growing in importance as the public are becoming more and more environmentally aware. Steel is also a very good material in terms of its practicality, as it is easily welde d, has good formability, elongation and ductility. As the environmental impact of cars is becoming more and more important, stringent regulations regarding emissions are being forced upon manufacturers. One of the ways that manufacturers have chosen to meet these requirements is to make the cars lighter by switching from mild steel to high strength steel grades which enables components to have a thinner cross section, saving weight.The three main types of steels used in automobiles today areLow strength (IF and mild steels),High strength (Carbon manganese, bake hardening, IFHS and HSLA)Advanced high strength steels (dual-phase, complex phase, transformation induced plasticity and matensitic steels)These steel types can be seen below on figure 3.1 comparing their elongation and strength.Figure 3.1 Classification of automotive steels 8. 3.1.1 Mild Steels Mild steels are normally found in two different forms for automotive purposes. Drawn Quality and Aluminium killed. These are both cheap to manufacture are used for high volume parts. They are usually of a ferrite microstructure. 8 3.1.2 Interstitial Free Steels IF steels are used for car body panels extensively due largely to their deep drawability. The high elongation achieved in comparison with other steel grades can be seen in figure 3.1.The main characteristic of IF steel is a low carbon and nitrogen content. These elements are outside from solution by adding specific elements for alloys. Commonly used elements for this microalloying process include Manganese, Sulphur, Titanium and Niobium. As well as a deep drawability, IF steel have low yield strength but a poor dent resistance which is undesirable for certain automotive applications 6Bake Hardening SteelsBH steels keep carbon in solution either during processing before it is precipitated or during the paint baking state 8. This strengthens the steel through solid solution strengthening, resulting in steel with both high formability and high strength. 3.1.4 Carbon-Manganese Steels Carbon-manganese steels are solid solution strengthened and are used in strip form on automobile bodies, although they are becoming replaced by lighter steel grades. They offer high drawability and are relatively cheap to produce. 9 D.T.Llewellyn Steel Metallurgy and Applications, Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd, Great Britain, 1992. 3.1.5 High-Strength Low-Alloy (HSLA) Steels HSLA steels are strengthened through the addition of microallying elements. These react with the carbon and nitrogen within the steel to form carbides and nitrides. Common elements include Nb, V and Ti. The resultant steel has both high strength and a high formability due to very fine grain sizes 10Dual-Phase (DP) SteelsDual-phase steels contain two phases within their microstructure. These are ferrite and martensite. This two phase structure is produced through a complex series of contolled heating and cooling. Martensite regions are produced by heating and rapidly cooling. It is th e marteniste regions tha give the hardness to the material where as the ferrite regions are much softer. The structure of DP steels takes advantages of the properties of each of the phases, where the hard maternsite regions are surrounded by softer ferrite which reduces brittleness, shown in figure 3.2. DP steel has good ductility, low yield strength but high work hardening rate 8.Figure 3.2 Microstructure of DP steel 8. 3.1.7 Transformation-Induced Plasticity (TRIP) Steels TRIP steels consist of a mainly ferrite microstructure with a low austenite content within the matrix. An isothermal hold during production at an intermediate temperature is used to produce bainite 8. Strength is increased by transformationing of austenite regions to harder martensite regions. TRIP steels have a good work hardening rate and good strength. Work hardening in TRIP steels continues at higher strain levels than those of DP steels so TRIP steels is a superior material from this aspect. Figure 3.3 sho ws the multi phase microstructure of TRIP steel.Figure 3.3 Microstructure of TRIP steel 8.Martensitic (MS) SteelMS steels are mainly of a martensitic microstructure but contain small amounts of ferrite and bainite. During heat treatment the steel is rapidly cooled transforming austenite into martensite. This gives a very high tensile strength since martensite produces a very hard material, but the drawback is this also gives a low formability. In order to overcome this low formability further processing such as heat treatments must be undertaken. 11 3.1.9 High Strength Interstitial Free (HS-IF) Steels HSIF steels are strengthened through the addition of microalloying elements. Commonly used alloying elements include P, B, Si, Mn, Ti, N. The combinations in which the microalloying elements are used have an effect on the properties of resultant steel allowing a range of requirements to be met. HSIF steels can produce nearly twice the potential yield strength as conventional IF steel s, although there is a reduction in formability.3.2 Microalloying Elements3.2.1 Carbon Carbon is one of the most important interstitial elements within steel, giving very different mechanical properties as its percentage content is altered and therefore must be studied in depth. Carbon is an element commonly found in automotive steels due to its high strength properties. Although adding carbon increases strength, it also affects the formability, i.e. its deep drawability. A set of experiments were carried out to determine the effect of carbon content within steel.When analysing the tensile test results it was noted that the ultimate tensile strength, the proof stress and the yield stress all increased as the amount of carbon increased in the steel. The plastic region as well as the general elongation of the steel under tensile stress decreased as the carbon content increased. These are significant changes in the mechanical properties. Hardness and Tensile strength increase as carb on content approaches 0.85% C as shown in figure 3.4. The elongation percentage decreases as the carbon content increases. This suggests that the more carbon present in the material, the stronger and less ductile it becomes. Figure 3.4 Affect of Carbon content in SteelYield StrengthCarbon content influences the yield strength of steel because carbon molecules fit into the interstitial crystal lattice sites of the body-centred cubic arrangement of the iron molecules. The interstitial carbons make it more difficult for any dislocation to occur as it reduces mobility. This has a hardening effect on the metal.Phase diagramUsing the phase diagram one can understand why the properties of steels change with differing carbon content. Figure 3.5 Phase Diagram The gamma phase, relates to an Austenite range which has a Face Centred Cubic (FCC) structure. The alpha phase relates to a ferritic Body Centered Cubic crystal structure. Ferrite is found extensively in automotive steels, its BCC st ructure is much less dense than the FCC of austenite which makes it easily formable and therefore relatively cheap to manufacture. Fe3C refers to cementite and the mixture of alpha (ferrite) + cementite is called pearlite. On the phase diagram steels only apply up to about 1.4% carbon. The eutectoid point is at 723 degrees and is where there are three phases in equilibrium. The eutectoid composition is Fe-0.83%C. The reaction that happens at the eutectoid point isaustenite ferrite + cementitegamma alpha + Fe3CHigh carbon content means a greater precense of austenite, whereas low carbon content will give less austenite and a more ferritic microstructure. The affect of these differing microstructures is reflected in their mechanical properties. This is because Ferrite is soft and ductile and Cementite is hard and brittle. It can be seen by looking at figure 3.5 that as the carbon content is increased, strength increases. This relationship occurs up to the eutectoid point after whic h it starts to reduce. This where cementite grain-boundaries are created. The figure below shows how the varying content of carbon in steel affects its properties and suitability for different applications. Figure 3.6 Carbon Steel ApplicationsLever ruleThe lever rule can be used to calculate expected proportions of the phases present in each of the tested carbon steel specimens. These values can then be compared to the values obtained through testing. Figure 3.7 Lever RuleCalculationsa = Ferrite a + Fe3C = Pearlite 0.1wt%C Normalised Steel Tensile Specimen % Ferrite = (0.8- 0.1) = 0.897 (0.8-0.02) % Pearlite= (0.1- 0.02) = 0.103 (0.8- 0.02) 0.4wt%C Normalised Steel Tensile Specimen % Ferrite = (0.8- 0.4) = 0.513 (0.8-0.02) % Pearlite= (0.4- 0.02) = 0.487 (0.8- 0.02) 0.8wt%C Normalised Steel Tensile Specimen % Ferrite = (0.8- 0.8) = 0 (0.8-0.02) % Pearlite= (0.8- 0.02) = 1 (0.8- 0.02)These results suggest that as the carbon content increases the pearlite to ferrite ratio also increases. So the ratio of Pearlite to ferrite increases as carbon content is increased the material is made harder, stronger and more brittle but less ductile. These results obtained using the lever rule support the results obtained from the tensile test, showing the steel with the highest carbon content to be the least ductile and most brittle. The results are also supported by the findings from the hardness test which shows the steel with the highest carbon content to be the hardest. 3.2.2 Titanium The addition of Titanium to IFHS steels is particularly useful in the manufacturing of strip steels where good drawability is a requirement. The addition of Ti or Nb results in a lower Yield Strength/Tensile Strength ratio giving an increased formability. This can be seen in figure 3.8. When Titanium reacts with Carbon and Nitrogen it forms TiC and TiN, these precipitates work to delay recrystallisation of austenite, thus refining the grains to a favourable smalle r size 12.Figure 3.8 The effect of Titanium and Niobium on Yield Srength/UTS ratio 12 Titanium precipitates exist within steels and these affect the mechanical properties. TiN precipitates help to promote recrystallisation and encourage the 111 texture. TiS precipitates are commonly found in the austenite region as well as Ti4C2S2, Ti4C2S2 is formed by reacting with Carbon and in the highest regions of the austenite range there is little to no Carbon. These conditions are created at very high temperatures similar to those during hot rolling processes. This leaves the steel highly formable and suitable for deep drawability application such as car body panels. It is very difficult however to form Ti4C2S2 as it is less stable than TiS, although it can be encouraged through specific heat treatment processes. 13 3.2.3 Vanadium Titanium is commonly added with Niobium to steels to increase formability through precipitation. However these additions can result in a retardation of recryst allisation meaning a higher temperature or longer soaking time is required for recyrstallisation to occur. Vanadium offers a replacement to Niobium in the form of carbides and nitrides, VC and VN, which does not cause such a drastic retardation of recyrstallisation. This is attractive to manufacturers as lower temperatures and shorter processing time during annealing are more cost effective. The effectiveness of Vandium in essentially lowering the recrystallisation temperature is shown in Figure 3.9.Figure 3.9 The effect of Ti + Nb, Ti + V and V stabilised steels on the Temperature for Complete Recrystallisation in 30 Seconds 44. Figure 3.9 shows that the V only stabilised steel recrystallises at a lower temperature than the TiV and TiNb steels. 3.2.4 Sulphur Sulphur is found in all steels including Interstitial Free High Strength Steels. It acts as an interstitial elements and other elements to form precipitates such as TiS, MnS and Ti4C2S2. These precipitates have different e ffects on the mechanical properties of the material. In particular the precipitation of carbosulphides is beneficial to the steel as this causes the steel to form in the austenite range and helps to reduce the TiC formation which could occur during heat treatment processing and cause the material to become less likely to form the 111 texture.13 Promoting Ti4C2S2 therefore encourages the formation of the favourable 111 texture, increasing the formability of the material. In order for Ti4C2S2 to develop, Sulphur, Carbon and Titanium must all be present, and processed in such a way as to form a reaction, which can difficult. 3.2.5 Niobium Niobium if found extensively in IFHS Steels reacting with carbon to form carbides such as NbC. Solute Niobium can be used to segregate austenite and ferrite grain boundaries and increase the strength of the austenite region 14. As Niobium content increases the r-value decreases as well as the ductility. Generally Nb content is minimised as much as possible as the positive effect it has on strength in the austenite region is relatively small and is outweighed by the negative effect it has on ductility. Boron can be used instead of Niobium as it has a much greater effect on strength than Niobium. This can be seen in figure 3.9Figure 3.9 Average Flow Stress vs. Temperature for B, C, and Nb and Mo solutes in steel 15. 3.2.6 Phosphorus Phosphorus, P, is a common alloy of IFHS steel, offering increases in strength through solid solution hardening. Adding Phosphorus can also have a direct effect on the grains within a structure by increasing the Hall-Petch slope (described below). Adding P however can have a negative effect on the brittleness of the material. This can be particularly problematic during the cold working process where brittle fracture is a distinct possibility. The Hall-Petch relationship says that as the grain size decreases the yield strength of a material increases. This is due to the dislocations piling up at grain boundaries, which act as barriers to dislocation movement at low temperatures. If the grain size is large, then a high number of dislocations will pile up at the edge of the slip plane. When the stress exceeds a critical value the dislocations cross the boundary. So the larger the grain size, the lower the applied stress required to reach this critical stress at the grain boundary, meaning the larger the grain size, the lower the yield stress due to easier dislocation movement. This is true down to a grain size of 100nm. Below this size the yield strength remains constant or starts to decrease. This is effect is called the reverse Hall-Petch effect. Phosphorus along with Silicon and Manganese are added via solid solution strengthening to strengthen steel allowing for a thinner sheet of metal to be used for car body panels, and thus reducing the weight. Phosphorus is the most effective out of the three elements in terms of cost and strengthening effect. This can be seen below in figure 3.11 where the effects of P and S additions are compared.Figure 3.11 Comparison of Stress vs. Temperature between Phosphorus and Silicon microalloyed Steels 16. Phosphorus is also found in the form of FeTiP precipitates. These precipitates have a negative affect on strength and drawability. The effects of these precipitates are greater in batch annealed steels than in continuous steels. This is due to the long soaking times required in batch annealing which provides optimum conditions and sufficient time for these precipitates to form 17. 3.2.7 Manganese Manganese is added through solid solution strengthening to IFHS steels in a low concentration in order to react with the Sulphur to produce MnS precipitates. These MnS precipitates act to refine grain structure during processing when there is a transformation in phase between austenite and ferrite. Mn is to strengthen steels through solid solution strengthening. The effect of Mn is relatively small in the austenite ra nge but compared to the ferrite range. This is due to a difference in Mn solubility between the austenite and ferrite ranges. Where Mn in ferrite is 10wt% higher than in austenite 18 Mn acts to stabilize the austenite region and slows down the rate of austenite transformation and also the temperature at which the transformation takes place. This lowering of transformation temperature between austenite and ferrite promotes finer grains through grain refinement. Mn can be found in oxide and sulphide forms as well as combinations of the two, oxysulphides. These oxides and sulphides act to deoxidise and desulphurise the steel. When in sulphide form, MnS helps to reduce embrittlement of steel without reducing hardness. When mixed with common impurities such as Al2O3, SiO2, MnO, CaO, CaS and FeS an increase in hardness and strength occurs 19. When in the oxide form, MnO at the surface acts a barrier layer to prevent surface oxidisation and corrosion. 3.2.8 Silicon Silicon is a useful element and is used to increase the strength through solid solution strengthening, although there is a compromise as increasing Silicon content decreases ductility. Silicon is also found in oxide form, as silicon dioxide. Silicon dioxide is found with Manganese Oxide or as Silicomanganese to give a strong oxygen stabilisation and prevent corrosion of steel. 20. 3.2.9 Aluminium Aluminium is used to deoxidise steel by reacting with oxygen within the steel to form Al2O3. These Aluminium Oxides are later removed leaving an oxygen free steel. However the low density of Aluminium means that oxidisation could occur at the steel interface resulting in corrosion. Aluminium content can have a negative effect on formability. This is due to the precipitation of AlN during recrystallisation preventing the 111 development and thus preventing the formation of finer grains. So minimising the amount of AlN in solid solution results in higher formability. A more stable alternative to AlN which i s commonly used in IFHS steels is TiN.3.3 Hardening and processingThere are many different compositions of steel which offer various advantageous properties. The main reason for altering composition or alloying is to strengthen the material. This can be done in several ways 3.3.1 Precipitation strengthening This process uses heat treatment to raise the yield strength of a material. As temperature changes during heat treatment processing, fine particles are produced due to differing melting points of impurities. These fine particles impede dislocation movement. This in turn reduces the ductility and plasticity of the material and increases its hardness. 3.2.2 Solid solution strengthening Solid solution strengthening is a form of alloying. It is a commonly used technique to improve the strength of a material. Atoms of the alloying element are added to the crystal lattice of the base metal via diffusion. There are two ways in which this can occur, depending on the size of the all oying alloying element. These are via substitutional solid solution, and interstitial solid solution.Substitutional solid solutionThis takes place when the sizes of the alloying atoms are equal in size to the base atoms, (Differing in size by no more than 15% according to the Hume-Rothery rules) The alloying atoms replace the solvent atoms and assume their lattice positions. The solute atoms can produce a slight distortion of the crystal lattice, due to the size variation. The amount of distortion increases with the size of the solute atom. This distortion has an effect on microstructural properties. The formation of slip planes is altered making dislocation movement more difficult, meaning a higher stress is required to move the dislocations. This gives the material a higher strength. A generalisation associated with substitution is that large substitutional atoms put the structure under compressive stress, and small substitutional atoms give tensile stress.Interstitial solid solut ionThis occurs when the alloying atoms are much smaller than the base atoms. The alloying atoms fit into spaces within the crystal lattice. This is the case with carbon in steel, where carbon is a solute in the iron solvent lattice. The carbon atoms are less than half the size of the iron atoms so an interstitial solid solution forms.3.3.3 Processing The final properties of steel are greatly affected by the manner in which it is first made and then processed. Typical processes include steel making, casting, hot and cold rolling and annealing. Each individual process has a distinct affect on the properties of the steel. To make the steel free from interstitial elements, Ti and Nb are often added to react with interstitials after a process called vacuum degassing. Vacuum degassing is the name given to the process where a metal is melted within a vacuum and the gasses are evaporated out.Hot and cold rollingHot rolling is the first process to take place after steel making. After steel has been cast into uniform slabs or billets it is the rolled under a high temperature to reduce its cross sectional thickness. The hot rolling process is undertaken at a temperature above that at which recrystallisation occurs. Hot rolling reduces allows recrysallisation to occur during processing (dynamic recrystallisation) and the material is left stress free due the new grain nucleation and equiaxed grains. Effect of hot working on microstructure Hot working occurs at high temperatures, this means that there is often enough thermal energy present for recrsytallisation to occur during deformation. This is called dynamic recrystallisation and it occurs with most metals, apart from aluminium. Recrystallisation occurs during the working process and also as the metal is cooling. Dynamic recrystallisation occurs by new grains nucleating at existing grain boundaries. The amount of recyrstallisation depends on several factors. It depends on the strain rate, temperature and amount of strain on the metal. Generally, as strain within the metal increases, so does the amount of recrystallisation. Cold working is when steel is plastically deformed below its recrystallisation temperature. This process increases the yield strength due to the plastic deformation causing slight defects within the microstructure of the metal. These defects make it difficult for slip planes to move. The grain size of the metal is also reduced, making the material harder through a process called Hall petch hardening. Hall Petch hardening, also known as grain boundary strengthening, increases materials strength by altering the grain size. This is because grain boundaries act as barriers to dislocation movement. So altering the grain size, through hot and cold rolling at various temperatures and rates will have an effect on dislocation movement and yield strength. Cold working will increase the strength of the metal by making it increasingly difficult for slip to occur. However as more and more of the larger grains split to form smaller grains the ductility is greatly reduced as the material hardens. Eventually fracture would occur. To avoid this, the material is annealed. Cold working occurs at a temperature below 0.4 of the metals melting point. Some of the energy created by the process is expelled as heat but some energy is stored within the structure putting it into a high energy state. The energy is stored within the grain boundaries of the deformed crystals and within the stress fields of the dislocations created through the plastic deformation. The structure is highly stressed after cold working and would prefer to return to its former low energy state. It is howeve